Rabu, 10 Juni 2015

LEARNING ENGLISH

            The importance of learning English cannot be overstated in an increasingly interconnected and globalized world. For the millions of immigrants who travel the world from non-English-speaking countries every year, learning to communicate in English is important to enter and ultimately succeed in mainstream English speaking countries. Working knowledge of the English language can create many opportunities in international markets and regions.
            English is the fourth most widely spoken native language in the world, and in terms of sheer number of speakers, it is the most spoken official language in the world. It is the primary language used in international affairs. The English language has official status even in nations where it is not the primary spoken language. English is indisputably the primary language of global trade and commerce. In many countries, most tourism authorities and other officials in contact with the public speak English to interact and engage with tourists and immigrants.
            While progress has been made in language-translation software and allied technologies, the primary language of the ubiquitous and all-influential World Wide Web is English. English is typically the language of latest-version applications and programs and new freeware, shareware, peer-to-peer, social media networks and websites. Software manuals, hardware-installation guides and product fact sheets of popular consumer electronics and entertainment devices usually are available in English first before being made available in other languages.
            In universities and colleges in Great Britain, the Unites States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Singapore, which attract the most number of international students, the primary language of instruction is English. Most of the top business schools, medical centers and advanced-study institutes are located in North America and Great Britain, and English is the language used in every activity at these institutions of higher learning. Most peer-to-peer journals and technical periodicals that give international acclaim to scientists, engineers, technologists, and technocrats are printed in English.
            The influence of the United States and Great Britain on political affairs and international relations for the past 100 years has ensured the proliferation and acceptance of English as the primary spoken language in many countries. The widespread acceptance of American pop culture also has contributed to the primacy of the English language. A working knowledge of English is important for diplomats and high-ranking officials in such major countries as Germany, Japan, France, South Korea, Brazil, Italy, and Russia so they can better understand the nuance and craft of global affairs and international diplomacy.
            Knowing English opens job and employment opportunities in many countries and markets. Multilateral institutions and agencies in the four United Nation cities of New York, Vienna, The Hague and Geneva recruit professionals with multilingual skills but also expect the candidates to have good English-speaking skills. The Commonwealth of Nations, made up of 50-plus countries that were former British colonies or dependencies, also offers numerous employment opportunities to those who understand and communicate in English.

Sumber :


GLOBAL WARMING

            Throughout its long history, Earth has warmed and cooled time and again. Climate has changed when the planet received more or less sunlight due to subtle shifts in its orbit, as the atmosphere or surface changed, or when the Sun’s energy varied. But in the past century, another force has started to influence Earth’s climate: humanity.
            How does this warming compare to previous changes in Earth’s climate? How can we be certain that human-released greenhouse gases are causing the warming? How much more will the Earth warm? How will Earth respond? Answering these questions is perhaps the most significant scientific challenge of our time.
            Global warming is the unusually rapid increase in Earth’s average surface temperature over the past century primarily due to the greenhouse gases released as people burn fossil fuels. The global average surface temperature rose 0.6 to 0.9 degrees Celsius (1.1 to 1.6° F) between 1906 and 2005, and the rate of temperature increase has nearly doubled in the last 50 years. Temperatures are certain to go up further. Earth’s temperature begins with the Sun. Roughly 30 percent of incoming sunlight is reflected back into space by bright surfaces like clouds and ice. Of the remaining 70 percent, most is absorbed by the land and ocean, and the rest is absorbed by the atmosphere. The absorbed solar energy heats our planet.
            As the rocks, the air, and the seas warm, they radiate “heat” energy (thermal infrared radiation). From the surface, this energy travels into the atmosphere where much of it is absorbed by water vapor and long-lived greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane. When they absorb the energy radiating from Earth’s surface, microscopic water or greenhouse gas molecules turn into tiny heaters— like the bricks in a fireplace, they radiate heat even after the fire goes out. They radiate in all directions. The energy that radiates back toward Earth heats both the lower atmosphere and the surface, enhancing the heating they get from direct sunlight.
            This absorption and radiation of heat by the atmosphere—the natural greenhouse effect—is beneficial for life on Earth. If there were no greenhouse effect, the Earth’s average surface temperature would be a very chilly -18°C (0°F) instead of the comfortable 15°C (59°F) that it is today. What has scientists concerned now is that over the past 250 years, humans have been artificially raising the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at an ever-increasing rate, mostly by burning fossil fuels, but also from cutting down carbon-absorbing forests. Since the Industrial Revolution began in about 1750, carbon dioxide levels have increased nearly 38 percent as of 2009 and methane levels have increased 148 percent.
            The atmosphere today contains more greenhouse gas molecules, so more of the infrared energy emitted by the surface ends up being absorbed by the atmosphere. Since some of the extra energy from a warmer atmosphere radiates back down to the surface, Earth’s surface temperature rises. By increasing the concentration of greenhouse gases, we are making Earth’s atmosphere a more efficient greenhouse.
            The average surface temperature of Earth is maintained by a balance of various forms of solar and terrestrial radiation. Solar radiation is often called “shortwave” radiation because the frequencies of the radiation are relatively high and the wavelengths relatively short—close to the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Terrestrial radiation, on the other hand, is often called “longwave” radiation because the frequencies are relatively low and the wavelengths relatively long—somewhere in the infrared part of the spectrum. Downward-moving solar energy is typically measured in watts per square metre. The energy of the total incoming solar radiation at the top of Earth’s atmosphere (the so-called “solar constant”) amounts roughly to 1,366 watts per square metre annually. Adjusting for the fact that only one-half of the planet’s surface receives solar radiation at any given time, the average surface insolation is 342 watts per square metre annually.
            The amount of solar radiation absorbed by Earth’s surface is only a small fraction of the total solar radiation entering the atmosphere. For every 100 units of incoming solar radiation, roughly 30 units are reflected back to space by either clouds, the atmosphere, or reflective regions of Earth’s surface. This reflective capacity is referred to as Earth’s planetary albedo, and it need not remain fixed over time, since the spatial extent and distribution of reflective formations, such as clouds and ice cover, can change. The 70 units of solar radiation that are not reflected may be absorbed by the atmosphere, clouds, or the surface. In the absence of further complications, in order to maintain thermodynamic equilibrium, Earth’s surface and atmosphere must radiate these same 70 units back to space. Earth’s surface temperature (and that of the lower layer of the atmosphere essentially in contact with the surface) is tied to the magnitude of this emission of outgoing radiation according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
            Earth’s energy budget is further complicated by the greenhouse effect. Trace gases with certain chemical properties—the so-called greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O)—absorb some of the infrared radiation produced by Earth’s surface. Because of this absorption, some fraction of the original 70 units does not directly escape to space. Because greenhouse gases emit the same amount of radiation they absorb and because this radiation is emitted equally in all directions (that is, as much downward as upward), the net effect of absorption by greenhouse gases is to increase the total amount of radiation emitted downward toward Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere. To maintain equilibrium, Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere must emit more radiation than the original 70 units. Consequently, the surface temperature must be higher. This process is not quite the same as that which governs a true greenhouse, but the end effect is similar. The presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to a warming of the surface and lower part of the atmosphere (and a cooling higher up in the atmosphere) relative to what would be expected in the absence of greenhouse gases.
            It is essential to distinguish the “natural,” or background, greenhouse effect from the “enhanced” greenhouse effect associated with human activity. The natural greenhouse effect is associated with surface warming properties of natural constituents of Earth’s atmosphere, especially water vapour, carbon dioxide, and methane. The existence of this effect is accepted by all scientists. Indeed, in its absence, Earth’s average temperature would be approximately 33 °C (59 °F) colder than today, and Earth would be a frozen and likely uninhabitable planet. What has been subject to controversy is the so-called enhanced greenhouse effect, which is associated with increased concentrations of greenhouse gases caused by human activity. In particular, the burning of fossil fuels raises the concentrations of the major greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and these higher concentrations have the potential to warm the atmosphere by several degrees.
            Global warming is related to the more general phenomenon of climate change, which refers to changes in the totality of attributes that define climate. In addition to changes in air temperature, climate change involves changes to precipitation patterns, winds, ocean currents, and other measures of Earth’s climate. Normally, climate change can be viewed as the combination of various natural forces occurring over diverse timescales. Since the advent of human civilization, climate change has involved an “anthropogenic,” or exclusively human-caused, element, and this anthropogenic element has become more important in the industrial period of the past two centuries. The term global warming is used specifically to refer to any warming of near-surface air during the past two centuries that can be traced to anthropogenic causes.
            To define the concepts of global warming and climate change properly, it is first necessary to recognize that the climate of Earth has varied across many timescales, ranging from an individual human life span to billions of years. This variable climate history is typically classified in terms of “regimes” or “epochs.” For instance, the Pleistocene glacial epoch (about 2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago) was marked by substantial variations in the global extent of glaciers and ice sheets. These variations took place on timescales of tens to hundreds of millennia and were driven by changes in the distribution of solar radiation across Earth’s surface. The distribution of solar radiation is known as the insolation pattern, and it is strongly affected by the geometry of Earth’s orbit around the Sun and by the orientation, or tilt, of Earth’s axis relative to the direct rays of the Sun.
            Worldwide, the most recent glacial period, or ice age, culminated about 21,000 years ago in what is often called the Last Glacial Maximum. During this time, continental ice sheets extended well into the middle latitude regions of Europe and North America, reaching as far south as present-day London and New York City. Global annual mean temperature appears to have been about 4–5 °C (7–9 °F) colder than in the mid-20th century. It is important to remember that these figures are a global average. In fact, during the height of this last ice age, Earth’s climate was characterized by greater cooling at higher latitudes (that is, toward the poles) and relatively little cooling over large parts of the tropical oceans (near the Equator). This glacial interval terminated abruptly about 11,700 years ago and was followed by the subsequent relatively ice-free period known as the Holocene Epoch. The modern period of Earth’s history is conventionally defined as residing within the Holocene. However, some scientists have argued that the Holocene Epoch terminated in the relatively recent past and that Earth currently resides in a climatic interval that could justly be called the Anthropocene Epoch—that is, a period during which humans have exerted a dominant influence over climate.
            Though less dramatic than the climate changes that occurred during the Pleistocene Epoch, significant variations in global climate have nonetheless taken place over the course of the Holocene. During the early Holocene, roughly 9,000 years ago, atmospheric circulation and precipitation patterns appear to have been substantially different from those of today. For example, there is evidence for relatively wet conditions in what is now the Sahara Desert. The change from one climatic regime to another was caused by only modest changes in the pattern of insolation within the Holocene interval as well as the interaction of these patterns with large-scale climate phenomena such as monsoons and El NiƱo/Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
            During the middle Holocene, some 5,000–7,000 years ago, conditions appear to have been relatively warm—indeed, perhaps warmer than today in some parts of the world and during certain seasons. For this reason, this interval is sometimes referred to as the Mid-Holocene Climatic Optimum. The relative warmth of average near-surface air temperatures at this time, however, is somewhat unclear. Changes in the pattern of insolation favoured warmer summers at higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, but these changes also produced cooler winters in the Northern Hemisphere and relatively cool conditions year-round in the tropics. Any overall hemispheric or global mean temperature changes thus reflected a balance between competing seasonal and regional changes. In fact, recent theoretical climate model studies suggest that global mean temperatures during the middle Holocene were probably 0.2–0.3 °C (0.4–0.5 °F) colder than average late 20th-century conditions.
            Over subsequent millennia, conditions appear to have cooled relative to middle Holocene levels. This period has sometimes been referred to as the “Neoglacial.” In the middle latitudes this cooling trend was associated with intermittent periods of advancing and retreating mountain glaciers reminiscent of (though far more modest than) the more substantial advance and retreat of the major continental ice sheets of the Pleistocene climate epoch.
            In my opinion The World is either warming up or not. If it is warming then the cause is natural or due at least in part to human activity i.e. air pollution. If the World is warming and the warming is due to natural causes then we will just have to adapt. If it is due to human activity then we can do something about it by eliminating the air pollution that we cause. Either way we will have clean air which is a good idea in itself. If our air pollution can warm the Earth then we may have a mechanism that could prevent another Ice Age. Another Ice Age could kill most of us. Ordinary people should not get into pointless “yes it is” or “no it isn’t” arguments. Scientists and history will decide the issue eventually. We don’t have to stop burning fossil fuels. Burning coal and oil does not pollute the atmosphere. The smoke does that. Eliminate the smoke and other exhaust gases and air pollution will cease.

Sumber :


Kamis, 30 April 2015

PASSIVE SENTENCE
·         Definiton of Passive Sentence
A passive construction occurs when you make the object of an action into the subject of a sentence. That is, whoever or whatever is performing the action is not the grammatical subject of the sentence. Take a look at this passive rephrasing of a familiar joke:
Why was the road crossed by the chicken?
Who is doing the action in this sentence? The chicken is the one doing the action in this sentence, but the chicken is not in the spot where you would expect the grammatical subject to be. Instead, the road is the grammatical subject. The more familiar phrasing (why did the chicken cross the road?) puts the actor in the subject position, the position of doing something—the chicken (the actor/doer) crosses the road (the object). We use active verbs to represent that “doing,” whether it be crossing roads, proposing ideas, making arguments, or invading houses (more on that shortly).
Once you know what to look for, passive constructions are easy to spot. Look for a form of “to be” (is, are, am , was, were, has been, have been, had been, will be, will have been, being) followed by a past participle. (The past participle is a form of the verb that typically, but not always, ends in “-ed.” Some exceptions to the “-ed” rule are words like “paid” (not “payed”) and “driven.” (not “drived”). Here’s a sure-fire formula for identifying the passive voice:
form of “to be” + past participle = passive voice
For example:
The metropolis has been scorched by the dragon’s fiery breath.
When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.

·         Illustration
For example :
The cat killed the rat. (Active Voice)
The cat = subject of the sentence
killed     = verb of the sentence
the rat  = the object of the verb
Now, who killed whom?  =
‘the cat’ – the subject of the sentence killed “the rat” – the object of the verb.
We say that this sentence or the verb of this sentence is in Active Voice because
the subject ‘the cat’ does the killing.
Let’s see what this sentence is about…
The rat was killed by the cat.    (Passive Voice)
The rat = subject of the sentence
was killed = verb of the sentence
the cat = the object of the preposition “by”
Now, who killed whom?    ‘The rat killed the cat’?  Noooooo….
Even in his sentence ‘the cat’ killed ‘the rat’, but not ‘the rat’ killed ‘the cat’!
Though ‘the rat’ is actually the subject of the sentence, it is not doing anything
but passively allowing ‘the cat’ which is the object of the preposition ‘by’ to kill it.
As the subject of the sentence does not do anything but allows passively something
to be done to it, we say that this sentence or the verb of this sentence is in PASSIVE VOICE.
How do we know who does what?  Well, the answer is in the VERB – ‘was killed’!
the verb – was killed – one verb, two parts — simple past tense – Passive Voice.
Suppose the second sentence was like this: ‘The rat killed the cat.’ (which might be correct according to the grammar rules but would not be sensible) we would say that this sentence or the verb of this sentence was in Active Voice.

The Formula/ Tense Passive Voice
PAST
1. Simple Past : was/were + the past participle V3 form of the Main Verb
2. Past Continuous : was/were + being + the past participle V3 form of the Main Verb
3. Past Perfect :  had + been + the Past Participle V3 form of the Main Verb
4. Past Perfect Continuous —— no passive voice for this tense ——
PRESENT
1. Simple Present :  is/am/are + the Past Participle V3 form of the Main Verb
2. Present Continuous :  is/am/are + being + the Past Participle V3 form of the Main Verb
3. Present Perfect :  has/have + been + the past participle V3 form of the Main Verb
4. Present Perfect Continuous ——— no passive voice for this tense ———
FUTURE
1. Simple Future :  will/shall + be + the Past Participle V3 form of the Main Verb
2. Future Continuous ——— no passive voice for this tense ———
3. Future Perfect : will/shall + have + been + the Past Participle V3 form of the Main Verb
4. Future Perfect Continuous ——— no passive form for this tense ———
There are only EIGHT TENSES in Passive Voice. The ‘Past Perfect Continuous’, ‘Present Perfect Continuous’, ‘Future Continuous’ and the ‘Future Perfect Continuous’ Tenses are not used in Passive Voice in modern English. The Active Voice sentences having these four Tenses are not changed into Passive Voice. The Main Verb in any Tense in Passive Voice takes only the Past Participle — V3 – form!

Active to Passive Sentence

Active
Passive
1
Once a week, Bruce cleans the bed room.
Once a week, the bed room is cleaned by Bruce.
2
At 8:00 PM tonight, Phill will be washing the dishes.
At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by Phill.
3
At 8:00 PM tonight, Rose is going to be washing the dishes.
At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by Rose.
4
He  will have completed  the project before the deadline.
The project  will have been completed before the deadline.
5
We are going to have completed the project before the deadline.
The project is going to have been completed before the deadline.
6
The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.
The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.
7
The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.
The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.
8
Lucy used to pay the bills.
The bills used to be paid by Lucy.
9
My grand mother would always make the pies.
The pies would always be made by my grand mother.
10
I knew Max  would finish  the work by 5:00 PM.
I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 PM.

Passive to Active Sentence

Passive
Active
1
At dinner, five shrimp were eaten by Louis.
Louis ate five shrimp at dinner.
2
A movie is going to be watched by them tonight.
They are going to watch a movie tonight.
3
The comic was read by Mark in one day.
Mark read the comic in one day.
4
The video was posted on Youtube by Kevin.
Kevin posted the video on Youtube.
5
Instructions will be given to you by the teacher.
The teacher will give you instructions.
6
The baby was carried by the kangaroo in her pouch.
The kangaroo carried her baby in her pouch.
7
The house has been painted green by them.
They have painted their house green.
8
A cap will be bought by you.
You will buy a cap.
9
A letter for Catys’s brother is written by her every month.
Caty writes a letter for her brother every month.
10
The book has been being read for 5 house.
She has been reading a book for 5 house

Sumber :


PASSIVE SENTENCE
·         Definiton of Passive Sentence
A passive construction occurs when you make the object of an action into the subject of a sentence. That is, whoever or whatever is performing the action is not the grammatical subject of the sentence. Take a look at this passive rephrasing of a familiar joke:
Why was the road crossed by the chicken?
Who is doing the action in this sentence? The chicken is the one doing the action in this sentence, but the chicken is not in the spot where you would expect the grammatical subject to be. Instead, the road is the grammatical subject. The more familiar phrasing (why did the chicken cross the road?) puts the actor in the subject position, the position of doing something—the chicken (the actor/doer) crosses the road (the object). We use active verbs to represent that “doing,” whether it be crossing roads, proposing ideas, making arguments, or invading houses (more on that shortly).
Once you know what to look for, passive constructions are easy to spot. Look for a form of “to be” (is, are, am , was, were, has been, have been, had been, will be, will have been, being) followed by a past participle. (The past participle is a form of the verb that typically, but not always, ends in “-ed.” Some exceptions to the “-ed” rule are words like “paid” (not “payed”) and “driven.” (not “drived”). Here’s a sure-fire formula for identifying the passive voice:
form of “to be” + past participle = passive voice
For example:
The metropolis has been scorched by the dragon’s fiery breath.
When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.

·         Illustration
For example :
The cat killed the rat. (Active Voice)
The cat = subject of the sentence
killed     = verb of the sentence
the rat  = the object of the verb
Now, who killed whom?  =
‘the cat’ – the subject of the sentence killed “the rat” – the object of the verb.
We say that this sentence or the verb of this sentence is in Active Voice because
the subject ‘the cat’ does the killing.
Let’s see what this sentence is about…
The rat was killed by the cat.    (Passive Voice)
The rat = subject of the sentence
was killed = verb of the sentence
the cat = the object of the preposition “by”
Now, who killed whom?    ‘The rat killed the cat’?  Noooooo….
Even in his sentence ‘the cat’ killed ‘the rat’, but not ‘the rat’ killed ‘the cat’!
Though ‘the rat’ is actually the subject of the sentence, it is not doing anything
but passively allowing ‘the cat’ which is the object of the preposition ‘by’ to kill it.
As the subject of the sentence does not do anything but allows passively something
to be done to it, we say that this sentence or the verb of this sentence is in PASSIVE VOICE.
How do we know who does what?  Well, the answer is in the VERB – ‘was killed’!
the verb – was killed – one verb, two parts — simple past tense – Passive Voice.
Suppose the second sentence was like this: ‘The rat killed the cat.’ (which might be correct according to the grammar rules but would not be sensible) we would say that this sentence or the verb of this sentence was in Active Voice.

The Formula/ Tense Passive Voice
PAST
1. Simple Past : was/were + the past participle V3 form of the Main Verb
2. Past Continuous : was/were + being + the past participle V3 form of the Main Verb
3. Past Perfect :  had + been + the Past Participle V3 form of the Main Verb
4. Past Perfect Continuous —— no passive voice for this tense ——
PRESENT
1. Simple Present :  is/am/are + the Past Participle V3 form of the Main Verb
2. Present Continuous :  is/am/are + being + the Past Participle V3 form of the Main Verb
3. Present Perfect :  has/have + been + the past participle V3 form of the Main Verb
4. Present Perfect Continuous ——— no passive voice for this tense ———
FUTURE
1. Simple Future :  will/shall + be + the Past Participle V3 form of the Main Verb
2. Future Continuous ——— no passive voice for this tense ———
3. Future Perfect : will/shall + have + been + the Past Participle V3 form of the Main Verb
4. Future Perfect Continuous ——— no passive form for this tense ———
There are only EIGHT TENSES in Passive Voice. The ‘Past Perfect Continuous’, ‘Present Perfect Continuous’, ‘Future Continuous’ and the ‘Future Perfect Continuous’ Tenses are not used in Passive Voice in modern English. The Active Voice sentences having these four Tenses are not changed into Passive Voice. The Main Verb in any Tense in Passive Voice takes only the Past Participle — V3 – form!

Active to Passive Sentence

Active
Passive
1
Once a week, Bruce cleans the bed room.
Once a week, the bed room is cleaned by Bruce.
2
At 8:00 PM tonight, Phill will be washing the dishes.
At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by Phill.
3
At 8:00 PM tonight, Rose is going to be washing the dishes.
At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by Rose.
4
He  will have completed  the project before the deadline.
The project  will have been completed before the deadline.
5
We are going to have completed the project before the deadline.
The project is going to have been completed before the deadline.
6
The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.
The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.
7
The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.
The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.
8
Lucy used to pay the bills.
The bills used to be paid by Lucy.
9
My grand mother would always make the pies.
The pies would always be made by my grand mother.
10
I knew Max  would finish  the work by 5:00 PM.
I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 PM.

Passive to Active Sentence

Passive
Active
1
At dinner, five shrimp were eaten by Louis.
Louis ate five shrimp at dinner.
2
A movie is going to be watched by them tonight.
They are going to watch a movie tonight.
3
The comic was read by Mark in one day.
Mark read the comic in one day.
4
The video was posted on Youtube by Kevin.
Kevin posted the video on Youtube.
5
Instructions will be given to you by the teacher.
The teacher will give you instructions.
6
The baby was carried by the kangaroo in her pouch.
The kangaroo carried her baby in her pouch.
7
The house has been painted green by them.
They have painted their house green.
8
A cap will be bought by you.
You will buy a cap.
9
A letter for Catys’s brother is written by her every month.
Caty writes a letter for her brother every month.
10
The book has been being read for 5 house.
She has been reading a book for 5 house

Sumber :